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Explore the Mohs scale, compare scratch resistance and get to know the minerals in your bead collection. Hardness is one part of choosing a material that suits your design.
Hardness is a starting point—not the whole story.
The Mohs scale ranks minerals by their resistance to scratching. A harder reference mineral can generally scratch a softer one. It is an ordinal scale: the numbers put materials in order, but the gaps between them are not equal. Diamond at 10 is not simply twice as hard as apatite at 5.
These are the ten traditional reference points. Individual gem materials may be described by ranges, and aggregates or treated materials can behave differently from a single clean crystal. Click a mineral to read its profile below.
A higher Mohs number generally means greater scratch resistance. Dust, neighbouring stones and metal components can still affect a finished surface. Store softer materials separately from harder pieces.
A material can resist scratches yet chip when struck. Internal structure, cleavage, fractures and the shape of a bead influence how it handles impacts. Jade illustrates why a modest hardness number can coexist with remarkable toughness.
Heat, light, moisture and chemicals affect materials differently. Coatings, dyes, fillers and adhesives can add further limits that a Mohs number does not describe.
An earring and a bracelet face different amounts of impact and rubbing. Choose bead sizes, spacers and stringing materials for the actual use, and check the care requirements of the least tolerant component.
On suitable expendable mineral specimens, a scratch test compares an unknown material with reference materials. A visible powder streak is not necessarily a scratch; the surface must be examined to see whether it was actually damaged. Results can be affected by weathering, inclusions, coatings and the direction tested.
A fingernail, coin or knife is not a universally calibrated reference. Their hardness varies, and they can damage an object. Use a proper mineral-testing method when identification genuinely requires it; do not test a valued bead, polished gemstone or finished piece of jewellery this way.
Hardness alone does not identify a gemstone. Many materials share a similar range. A professional identification may combine optical properties, magnification and other appropriate tests.
Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839) was a German-born mineralogist who worked in central Europe. His approach emphasised observable physical properties as a way to classify and distinguish minerals. The scale that carries his name emerged during his work in Graz in the early nineteenth century.
Mohs later worked in Freiberg and Vienna. The lasting appeal of his hardness sequence is its practicality: ten recognisable reference minerals offer a memorable comparison. Modern instruments can measure hardness in other ways, but the Mohs scale remains a useful descriptive tool in mineralogy and gemmology.
Because it is a ranking, it should not be converted into a simple percentage of durability. The same caution applies to tables labelled “absolute hardness” when the test method is not specified: values from different measurement systems are not interchangeable.
All ten reference minerals and the nineteen additional gemstones from the original guide are included here. Search by name, then expand an entry for its composition, history and care. The linked glossary includes further background and traditional associations.
Mohs: 1
A hydrated magnesium silicate mineral and the reference for hardness 1 on the Mohs scale. It is extremely soft, with a greasy or soapy feel. Talc-rich rock may be sold as soapstone, but that rock contains a mixture of minerals rather than necessarily pure talc.
Talc is a hydrated magnesium silicate with a sheet-like structure and a characteristic soft, greasy or soapy feel. It is the reference mineral for Mohs hardness 1. Material may be white, pale green, grey or other subdued colours, with a pearly or dull lustre. Soapstone is a rock rich in talc, not necessarily pure talc.
Talc occurs widely in altered and metamorphic rocks. It is used in industrial products, ceramics, paper and some cosmetics, while talc-rich soapstone is carved into ornamental objects. A decorative stone is not automatically a cosmetic-grade ingredient. Its extreme softness limits durable everyday beadwork.
Care: Handle gently and use a soft, dry cloth. It is unsuitable for jewellery surfaces that must resist scratching.
Mohs: About 2
A hydrated calcium sulphate mineral that is soft enough to scratch with a fingernail. Clear selenite, silky satin spar and fine-grained alabaster are forms associated with gypsum. Decorative pieces are generally better suited to display than exposed everyday jewellery.
Gypsum is calcium sulphate dihydrate. Clear crystalline material is called selenite; fibrous material with a silky sheen is satin spar, and fine-grained massive material is alabaster. These are varieties or forms of the same mineral, not interchangeable appearance descriptions. Gypsum is soft enough to scratch very easily.
Gypsum occurs widely, including in evaporite deposits. It has major uses in plaster and building materials as well as in carvings and mineral collections. Decorative wands sold as “selenite” are often fibrous satin spar. A correct variety name helps explain the appearance, while both require gentle, dry handling.
Care: Dust gently with a soft, dry cloth. Avoid soaking, abrasive cleaning and impacts.
Mohs: 3
Calcium carbonate, a common mineral found in many rocks. It can be colourless, white or coloured by other substances, and some transparent crystals show a doubled image viewed through them. Calcite is much softer than quartz and has cleavage planes along which it can split.
Calcite is calcium carbonate and one of the most widespread minerals. It is a major constituent of limestone and marble, and also occurs in veins, caves and many other settings. Pure calcite is colourless or white; other material may be blue, green, pink, peach, yellow, orange, red, brown, grey or black. Transparent crystals can show strong double refraction. Its perfect cleavage and low hardness make it easy to damage despite an attractive glassy lustre.
Calcite occurs worldwide. Crystals, massive material and banded decorative stone are all encountered. It is used in ornaments, carvings, beads and mineral collections, as well as in major industrial applications. “Mangano calcite” refers to manganese-bearing material, often pink. A trade colour name does not establish an exact chemical composition or treatment.
Care: Keep away from acids, knocks and harder stones. Wipe gently and avoid soaking, ultrasonic cleaners and steam.
Mohs: 4
Calcium fluoride, found in purple, green, yellow, blue and colourless material, sometimes with strong colour bands. It is softer than quartz and has pronounced cleavage, so beads and carvings require care. Fluorescence varies; not every specimen glows under ultraviolet light.
Fluorite is calcium fluoride, often forming cubic or octahedral crystals. Pure material is colourless, while natural examples include purple, green, blue, yellow, pink and other colours, often in bands. Some specimens fluoresce under ultraviolet light, but not all do. Fluorescence was named after fluorite, not the other way around. Fluorite’s name is linked with the Latin word for flowing and its use as a flux.
Sources include China, Mexico, Britain, Canada and many other countries. It is used in carvings, beads, faceted collector gems and industrial applications. A mineral can be used as a gemstone even when it is soft. Fluorite’s Mohs hardness of 4 and pronounced cleavage simply make it a more delicate jewellery choice.
Care: Protect from knocks, scratches and heat. Wipe with a soft cloth and avoid ultrasonic or steam cleaning.
Mohs: 5
A group of phosphate minerals that includes fluorapatite. Gem material can be blue, green, yellow and other colours. Its attractive colour is paired with relatively low hardness and brittleness, so it needs more protection than quartz or sapphire.
Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, including fluorapatite, hydroxylapatite and chlorapatite. Related apatite minerals occur in vertebrate bones and teeth. Crystals can be hexagonal and occur in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary environments. Gem apatite occurs in green, blue, yellow, brown, violet and other colours. Its modest hardness and brittleness make it less suitable for exposed jewellery that receives hard knocks.
Sources include Brazil, Madagascar, Mexico, Canada and several other countries. The name comes from a Greek word associated with deception, reflecting confusion with other minerals. Clear material may be faceted; chatoyant material is cut as cat’s-eye cabochons. “Asparagus stone” and “moroxite” are older names associated with certain green and blue material. Phosphate-rich deposits are important industrial sources for fertiliser, a separate use from gemstones.
Care: Choose protected settings and gentle wear. Clean with a soft, damp cloth; avoid knocks, heat, acids and ultrasonic cleaning.
Mohs: 6–6.5
A potassium feldspar mineral that may be colourless, white, pink or yellowish. Some transparent material is faceted, while feldspar intergrowths are important in moonstone. Orthoclase is also the reference mineral for hardness 6 on the Mohs scale.
Orthoclase is a potassium feldspar, common in granite and other rocks. It belongs to the monoclinic crystal system. Its name refers to cleavage directions that meet at approximately right angles. Colourless, white, cream, pink and yellow material occurs. It is one member of the feldspar group, not a synonym for every feldspar.
Orthoclase occurs in many countries. Transparent yellow material can be faceted, while other material is used in specimens and ornamental work. Moonstone’s optical effect can involve feldspar intergrowths that include orthoclase; that does not mean every orthoclase crystal is moonstone.
Care: Protect from impacts and scratches. Clean gently and avoid steam, strong heat and ultrasonic equipment.
Mohs: 7
Silicon dioxide, a common mineral with many gem varieties. Rock crystal is colourless quartz; amethyst is purple and rose quartz is pink. Quartz may be natural, laboratory-grown, dyed, coated or otherwise treated. Names such as cherry quartz can refer to glass, so the material description matters.
Quartz is crystalline silicon dioxide and one of the most common minerals in the crust. Familiar crystals have six-sided prisms with pointed terminations, although quartz also occurs in massive and fine-grained forms. Clear rock crystal, amethyst, citrine, smoky quartz and rose quartz have different appearances. Needle-like rutile inclusions create rutilated quartz; not every black needle is rutile. Names such as cherry quartz can describe manufactured glass, while lemon quartz may involve treatment.
Quartz occurs worldwide, with important gem and specimen material from Brazil, Madagascar and many other countries. It is used in beads, carvings, faceted gems and industrial applications. Its piezoelectric properties are useful in technical devices. The word “crystal” is connected historically with the Greek word for ice; the name quartz has a different linguistic history.
Care: Use mild soapy water for sound, untreated quartz. Avoid heat shock and follow treatment-specific care for coated, dyed or fractured material.
Mohs: 8
An aluminium silicate mineral occurring in a range of colours. Much blue topaz has been irradiated and heated. Its hardness is high, but perfect cleavage makes it vulnerable to a well-placed knock. Smoky topaz is a misleading trade name commonly used for smoky quartz. Topaz is a November birthstone.
Topaz is an aluminium silicate containing fluorine and hydroxyl. It forms orthorhombic crystals and can be colourless, yellow, orange, brown, pink, red or blue. High hardness does not prevent splitting along its pronounced cleavage. Much commercial blue topaz owes its colour to irradiation followed by heating. “Smoky topaz” is often a misleading trade description for smoky quartz, which is a different mineral.
Brazil is a major source, with deposits in Pakistan, Russia, Nigeria and other countries. The name is commonly linked with Topazios, an old name for an island that actually produced peridot; another proposed derivation relates to a Sanskrit word for fire. Topaz has carried strength and protection symbolism in several traditions. It is used in faceted jewellery and beads and is a November birthstone.
Care: Use mild soapy water. Avoid knocks, sudden temperature changes, steam and ultrasonic cleaning; coated material needs extra care.
Mohs: 9
Aluminium oxide, the mineral species that includes ruby and sapphire. Red gem corundum is ruby; other gem colours are sapphire. Natural and laboratory-grown corundum both exist. Its high scratch resistance does not make it impossible to chip or damage.
Corundum is crystalline aluminium oxide. Red gem corundum is ruby; other gem colours are called sapphire. Trace elements and structural features influence colour and optical effects. Its Mohs hardness of 9 describes scratch resistance, not immunity from chipping or damage.
Corundum occurs in several geological environments. Gem-quality crystals are cut for jewellery; lower-grade material and manufactured corundum also have abrasive and industrial uses. Emery is a mixed abrasive rock containing corundum and other minerals. Synthetic corundum should be distinguished from natural material.
Care: Use mild soapy water. Treatment and filling can change care requirements, so check before using steam or ultrasonic cleaners.
Mohs: 10
Crystalline carbon and the reference mineral at the top of the Mohs scratch-hardness scale. Diamond can still chip or cleave when struck. Natural and laboratory-grown diamonds are both diamond; cubic zirconia and moissanite are different materials used as diamond simulants. Diamond is the April birthstone.
Diamond is crystalline carbon. Its strongly bonded structure gives it exceptional scratch resistance, while graphite is another form of carbon with a very different structure. Diamond can still chip along cleavage directions. Natural diamonds occur in colourless, yellow, brown and rarer fancy colours; natural, laboratory-grown and treated-colour diamonds require different descriptions.
Diamonds have a long history in jewellery, royal treasures and symbols of commitment. Natural sources include several African countries, Russia, Canada and others. Both appearance and value depend on more than hardness: colour, clarity, cut, size and origin status matter. Diamond is the April birthstone.
Care: Check the setting and treatment before cleaning. Gentle soapy-water cleaning is a practical starting point for sound, untreated diamond jewellery.
Mohs: 6.5–7
A fine-grained variety of chalcedony, usually identified by bands of colour. Names such as moss agate and dendritic agate are also used for material with branching or plant-like mineral inclusions. Brightly coloured agate may be dyed; a colour name does not establish whether the colour is natural.
Agate belongs to the chalcedony family of fine-grained quartz materials. Many agates form in cavities in volcanic rock as silica-rich fluids deposit successive layers. Changing growth conditions create bands, eyes, scallops and landscape-like patterns. Agate is crystalline on a microscopic scale; describing it simply as amorphous silica is inaccurate. It can range from translucent to almost opaque and can take a fine polish. Natural colours include white, grey, brown and many other tones, while dyeing can produce or intensify vivid colours.
Agate occurs in many countries, with familiar material from Brazil, Uruguay, Mexico, India, Madagascar and the United States. Its name is traditionally connected with the ancient Achates River in Sicily. Agate has a long history in seals, amulets, vessels, cameos and jewellery. Cabochons, slices and rounded beads reveal its patterns. Names such as blue lace, moss, dendritic, fire, Botswana and condor describe different appearances or sources. Moss and dendritic varieties contain mineral patterns resembling plants; they do not contain actual moss. Fire agate has an iridescent effect, while ordinary banded agate has a different appearance.
Care: Use mild soap, lukewarm water and a soft cloth. Avoid prolonged sun exposure and solvents on dyed material.
Mohs: 6–6.5
A green to blue-green variety of microcline feldspar, often with pale streaks or mottling. It is generally translucent to opaque and is used for beads, cabochons and carvings. Amazonite is a feldspar, even when a supplier uses a name that suggests jade.
Amazonite is the blue-green to green variety of microcline, a potassium feldspar. Research connects the colour with lead, structurally bound water and irradiation effects, rather than a simple iron colouring. It is usually translucent to opaque, often with white streaks or mottling, and may show a gentle sheen. Pink or yellow feldspar should not automatically be called amazonite. Rich colour is attractive, but size and colour alone do not make it one of the world’s most valuable gems.
Sources include Russia, the United States, Brazil and other countries. Colorado’s Pikes Peak region is especially well known to mineral collectors for amazonite associated with smoky quartz. The name refers to the Amazon, although the history of the green stones behind that name is uncertain. Amazonite is commonly cut into beads, cabochons and carvings. Its cleavage makes protection from knocks important even when the polished surface looks robust.
Care: Protect against knocks and scratches. Use a soft cloth and mild soapy water; avoid heat and ultrasonic cleaning.
Mohs: 7
The purple variety of quartz, ranging from pale lilac to deep purple. Its colour can be unevenly distributed within a crystal. It is widely used in beads, pendants and faceted jewellery, and is the February birthstone. Natural and laboratory-grown amethyst both exist.
Amethyst is purple crystalline quartz. Its colour is connected with iron-related defects and irradiation in the crystal structure; manganese is not the standard explanation. It commonly grows in cavities and geodes, including large clusters of well-formed crystal points. Shades range from pale lilac to deep purple, sometimes with reddish or bluish flashes. Colour zoning can be uneven. Amethyst and yellow citrine can occur together in ametrine, while heating some amethyst produces yellow to orange material sold as citrine; not every amethyst responds in the same way.
Brazil and Uruguay are major familiar sources, with deposits also found in Zambia, Canada and other countries. The name is connected with the Greek belief that amethyst protected against drunkenness. Amethyst has appeared in engraved gems, religious jewellery and royal regalia. Its availability increased with large deposits, changing its place in the gem market. Cutters orient faceted stones to make the most of their colour; opaque or included material is also made into attractive beads and cabochons. Names such as “Siberian” may be used as trade descriptions and do not by themselves prove origin or a universal grade.
Care: Use mild soapy water and avoid sudden temperature changes. Prolonged strong light or heat can affect some colours.
Mohs: 7.5–8
The blue to greenish-blue variety of beryl, the mineral family that also includes emerald and morganite. Transparent faceted gems and more included bead material can look quite different. Heat treatment is common. Aquamarine is a March birthstone.
Aquamarine is the blue to greenish-blue variety of beryl, coloured by iron. It is related to emerald but usually has different inclusions and colouring agents. Fine transparent stones can look exceptionally clear, while bead material may contain visible inclusions, cloudy areas and colour variation. Colour intensity is one factor in value, together with clarity, size and cut. Its hardness is useful in jewellery, but it can still chip or fracture.
Brazil is a major source; other sources include Pakistan, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria and several additional countries. The name comes from Latin words relating to seawater. Sea legends and stories of mermaids’ treasure helped establish aquamarine as a sailors’ talisman. It is used in faceted jewellery, beads, cabochons and carvings. Heating is commonly used to reduce greenish tones and produce a bluer appearance; treatment should not be assumed or ruled out from colour alone.
Care: Use mild soapy water. Avoid heat and harsh cleaning when the stone is fractured, filled or of unknown treatment.
Mohs: 6.5–7
Orange to reddish-brown chalcedony, coloured by iron-bearing compounds. Cornelian is an alternative spelling. It can be translucent or nearly opaque, and is often fashioned into beads and cabochons. Heat treatment can modify its colour.
Carnelian, also spelled cornelian, is orange to reddish chalcedony coloured by iron-bearing material. It ranges from pale orange to rich red-brown and from translucent to nearly opaque. Heat treatment may deepen some colours; brightness alone cannot tell you whether a bead was treated. Dark brown chalcedony is often called sard, with no perfectly sharp visual boundary between all trade names.
Sources include India, Brazil and Uruguay. Carnelian has been used for beads, carved seals, amulets and cabochons since antiquity. Its name has been associated with Latin words relating to flesh and the red cornel cherry; simplified name histories differ. The stone’s warm colour and ability to take a smooth polish remain central to its use in jewellery.
Care: Use mild soapy water and a soft cloth. Avoid sudden temperature changes and follow any treatment-specific instructions.
Mohs: 7
The yellow-to-orange variety of quartz. Naturally coloured citrine occurs, but much commercial citrine is made by heat-treating amethyst. Treated natural quartz should not be confused with laboratory-grown quartz. Citrine and topaz are November birthstones, but they are different minerals.
Citrine is yellow to orange or brownish-yellow quartz. Natural citrine exists, but much commercial material is produced by heating amethyst or smoky quartz. Not every amethyst turns into an attractive citrine colour when heated. Yellow and purple zones can occur together in ametrine. Red-brown heat-treated material should not be taken as the standard appearance of all natural citrine.
Brazil is an important source of commercial quartz material. Citrine is cut into faceted stones, cabochons and beads and is also sold in clusters and carvings. Its name is linked with the citron or lemon. It shares November birthstone status with topaz, but the two are different minerals with different care needs.
Care: Use mild soapy water and avoid sudden temperature changes. Keep away from excessive heat.
Mohs: 7.5–8
The green gem variety of beryl. Emerald often contains fractures and inclusions, and oil or resin may be used to reduce the visibility of surface-reaching fractures. Hardness alone therefore overstates its resistance to damage. Emerald is the May birthstone.
Emerald is green beryl, with colour chiefly associated with chromium and/or vanadium; iron can influence its appearance. Inclusions and surface-reaching fissures are common. They can add individuality, but they can also affect transparency, durability and value. Oils or resins may be introduced into fissures to make them less visible; this is not simply a protective coat of wax over surface scratches.
Colombia, Zambia and Brazil are major sources, alongside other deposits. Emerald has been treasured since antiquity. GIA dates the first known Egyptian emerald mines to at least 330 BCE, rather than the much earlier mining date sometimes repeated. Colombian emeralds entered wider European trade in the sixteenth century. The name traces back to a Greek word for green gem. Emeralds are used in faceted jewellery and in beads or cabochons, with protection suited to their fissures and treatments.
Care: Use gentle cleaning with mild soapy water. Avoid steam, ultrasonic cleaning, heat and solvents, particularly with filled stones.
Mohs: About 6.5–7.5, depending on type
A group of related silicate minerals rather than one single red stone. Jewellery garnets include almandine, pyrope, spessartine, grossular and andradite, with colours from red and orange to green and more. Garnet is the January birthstone.
Garnet is a group of silicate minerals with related structures and varying compositions. Members include almandine, pyrope, spessartine, grossular, andradite and uvarovite. Reds are familiar, but garnets also occur in orange, yellow, green, brown and other colours; some show a change of colour under different lighting. Hardness and other properties vary by member. Garnets can help geologists interpret rock history, and certain types are useful indicator minerals in diamond exploration.
Sources are widespread and include India, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Madagascar, Tanzania and other countries. The name is traditionally associated with seed-like grains and the appearance of pomegranate seeds. Garnet has been used in ancient Egyptian ornaments, Roman seals and later European jewellery. Bohemian red garnet became particularly important in decorative jewellery. It is made into beads, cabochons and faceted gems.
Care: Use mild soapy water and avoid sudden temperature changes. More included stones and some varieties need extra protection from knocks.
Mohs: Nephrite 6–6.5; jadeite 6.5–7
A gem term most commonly used for nephrite and jadeite; GIA also recognises certain green omphacite material as jade. These are distinct mineral materials. Colour can be green, white, lavender and more. Dye, bleaching and polymer impregnation affect both description and care. New jade often refers to serpentine.
Jade refers principally to two different gem materials: nephrite and jadeite. Nephrite is a tough aggregate of amphibole minerals, while jadeite is a pyroxene. They were distinguished scientifically in the nineteenth century. Green is familiar, but jade also occurs in white, lavender, yellow, brown, black and other colours depending on the material. Toughness and hardness are different properties: jade’s interlocking texture helps explain its exceptional resistance to breaking.
Myanmar and Guatemala are important jadeite sources. Nephrite occurs in Canada, China, Russia, New Zealand and other regions. Jade has been used for tools, weapons, ornaments, ritual objects and carvings. Chinese jade carving has a long artistic history, and jadeite was also prized by Maya and other Mesoamerican cultures. Names such as “new jade” may describe serpentine rather than true jade. Dyeing and polymer impregnation are among the treatments that require clear disclosure.
Care: Ask which jade material and treatments are present. Use gentle soapy-water cleaning; avoid steam, ultrasonic equipment and solvents when treatment is unknown.
Mohs: Usually 6.5–7
An opaque, fine-grained silica-rich ornamental material, usually coloured and patterned by other minerals. It is often grouped with chalcedony. Many commercial names containing jasper are broad trade descriptions; Dalmatian stone and some other products sold as jasper may be different rocks.
True jasper is an opaque, fine-grained silica material related to chalcedony. Mineral inclusions and impurities create its colours and patterns; opacity is not simply caused by quartz grains. Reds, browns, yellows and greens are familiar, with patches, bands, breccias and landscape-like designs. The jewellery trade also uses “jasper” for some rocks that are not mineralogical jasper.
Jasper occurs worldwide and has a long history in beads, seals, amulets, cabochons and carvings. Its name is associated with a word for spotted stone. Names such as picture, brecciated, red and yellow jasper may describe appearance, while Biggs, Morrisonite and other names can refer to localities. “Rainforest jasper,” “Dalmatian jasper” and some other trade materials need separate identification. A trade name or painted-looking pattern does not, by itself, prove the mineral composition or source.
Care: Use mild soapy water for confirmed untreated jasper. Follow supplier care instructions for dyed, filled or differently composed trade materials.
Mohs: 6–6.5
A plagioclase feldspar that can show bright blue, green, gold or other flashes called labradorescence. The effect changes with lighting and viewing angle; it is not a surface coating in untreated material. Not every labradorite piece shows the same strength of flash.
Labradorite is a calcium-sodium plagioclase feldspar. Its characteristic flashes are called labradorescence and arise from light interacting with internal structures, rather than a surface coating in untreated material. A grey or darker body colour can reveal blue, green, gold, orange or other flashes as the viewing angle changes. Not every part of a stone shows the same strength or direction of flash.
The name refers to Labrador in Canada. Other familiar sources include Madagascar, Finland and Russia. Material is commonly cut into cabochons, beads and carvings, with orientation chosen to display the optical effect. A bead may look subdued from one angle and bright from another. Its cleavage makes protection from knocks important.
Care: Clean gently with mild soapy water. Protect from knocks, strong heat and ultrasonic cleaning because feldspar can split along cleavage planes.
Mohs: Variable; commonly about 5–6
A blue ornamental rock made from several minerals, with lazurite providing much of the blue colour. White calcite and metallic-looking pyrite may be visible. It is a rock rather than one mineral, and some material is dyed or treated to improve its appearance.
Lapis lazuli is a rock composed of several minerals, usually including blue lazurite with calcite and pyrite. Sulphur-bearing components in lazurite’s structure contribute to the blue colour. White calcite patches and brassy pyrite specks create familiar contrasts. The glitter of pyrite is reflection, not the same phenomenon as fluorescence. Colour can range from rich royal blue to lighter denim-like material.
Afghanistan has been an important source for thousands of years; other sources include Chile and Russia. Lapis has been treasured by ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian and other cultures and fashioned into beads, amulets, carvings and inlay. It was also a source of the blue pigment ultramarine. Waxing, dyeing and impregnation may alter appearance; not every lapis item has received the same treatment.
Care: Use a soft cloth and gentle, brief cleaning. Avoid acids, solvents, soaking, steam and ultrasonic cleaners, especially with treated material.
Mohs: 6.5–7 for chalcedony onyx
In gemmology, onyx is chalcedony with parallel bands. Black onyx jewellery is often uniformly black chalcedony, commonly treated to produce or strengthen the colour. Decorative material called marble onyx or onyx marble is generally carbonate rock with different properties.
Mineralogical onyx is a variety of chalcedony with relatively straight, parallel colour bands. Sardonyx combines reddish-brown sard with contrasting layers. In jewellery, “black onyx” commonly refers to black chalcedony, much of which is dyed. Decorative “onyx marble” is usually a carbonate material and has different properties from quartz onyx.
Onyx has a long history in seals, cameos, intaglios, beads and cabochons. Contrasting layers allow a carver to place a figure against a different-coloured background. The name comes from a Greek word for fingernail or claw. Identify the actual material and any treatment rather than assuming all green, blue or red “onyx” is natural quartz of that colour.
Care: Confirm which material is meant. Clean gently; avoid acids on carbonate material and solvents on dyed or treated pieces.
Mohs: 6.5–7
A yellow-green to green gem variety of olivine. Its colour comes from iron within the mineral's composition. It is used in faceted jewellery and beads, and is an August birthstone. It is less scratch-resistant than quartz and can be vulnerable to impacts.
Peridot is gem-quality olivine, usually rich in the magnesium end member forsterite. Iron within its structure contributes to its yellowish-green, olive-green or brownish-green colour. Much peridot forms in the mantle and reaches the surface in volcanic rocks; rare extraterrestrial examples occur in meteorites, but ordinary jewellery should not be described as meteoritic without evidence.
Sources include Pakistan, Myanmar, China and the United States, with Egypt’s Red Sea island of Zabargad an important historic source. GIA relates the name to the Arabic faridat, meaning gem. Ancient Egyptians associated it with sunlight, and it has sometimes been confused historically with emerald or topaz. It is used in faceted jewellery and beads and is an August birthstone. Sudden temperature changes can be damaging.
Care: Use mild soapy water. Avoid acids, sharp temperature changes, steam and ultrasonic cleaners.
Mohs: 9
The red gem variety of corundum, with colour chiefly associated with chromium. Natural ruby, laboratory-grown ruby and ruby-containing composites require different descriptions. Heat treatment and fracture filling can affect care. Ruby is the July birthstone.
Ruby is red corundum, coloured chiefly by chromium. Sapphire is the name for other gem colours of corundum. Ruby’s hardness is 9, but it is not accurate to call it the world’s second-toughest gem: toughness is a different property. Rubies occur in metamorphic environments and in deposits associated with volcanic rocks, and may be recovered from alluvial gravels. They range from transparent to opaque, with pinkish, purplish or orangey modifications to the red.
Myanmar, Mozambique, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and other countries are sources. The name is related to Latin words for red. Ruby has a long place in royal jewellery and traditions of passion and power. Aligned inclusions can produce a star when material is appropriately cut as a cabochon. Inclusions can affect beauty, durability and value; they are not automatically harmless. Heat treatment, fracture filling and laboratory-grown material need accurate disclosure.
Care: Use mild soapy water for sound, untreated material. For filled, composite or dyed ruby, use only a damp cloth and follow the supplier’s care advice.
Mohs: 9
Gem corundum in colours other than ruby red, including blue, pink, yellow and colourless. Natural and laboratory-grown sapphire both exist, and several colour or clarity treatments are possible. A star effect can appear in suitably cut material with oriented inclusions. Sapphire is the September birthstone.
Sapphire is gem corundum in colours other than ruby red. Blue is the most familiar, but pink, yellow, orange, green, purple, black and colourless material also occurs. Trace elements and structural features produce different colours. Inclusions may include needles, crystals or growth features; fine rutile needles can create a star in suitably oriented cabochons. Not every sapphire contains inclusions visible to the naked eye.
Sources include Sri Lanka, Madagascar, Australia, Myanmar, Thailand, Tanzania and other regions. Sapphire has long been associated with royalty, wisdom and sincerity. It is used in faceted jewellery, star cabochons and beads. Heat treatment and other processes can alter colour or clarity, and laboratory-grown sapphire also exists. Its high hardness does not make every treated or fractured stone equally durable.
Care: Use mild soapy water for sound, untreated material. For filled or dyed sapphire, use only a damp cloth and follow the supplier’s advice.
Mohs: 8
A magnesium aluminium oxide mineral, distinct from corundum. It occurs in red, pink, blue, purple, black and other colours, and red spinel was historically mistaken for ruby. Natural and laboratory-grown spinel both exist. Spinel is an August birthstone.
Gem spinel is magnesium aluminium oxide and a separate mineral from corundum. It occurs in red, pink, orange, blue, violet, grey, black and other colours. Spinel and ruby can occur together, which helped sustain historical confusion. Natural spinel, laboratory-grown spinel and material used as an imitation should be distinguished.
Sources include Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Tanzania and Vietnam. Some celebrated “rubies” in royal collections are spinels, including the Black Prince’s Ruby and the Timur Ruby. The name is commonly related to the Latin word for a thorn, referring to pointed crystals, rather than simply the Greek word for spark. Spinel is often untreated, but treatment is possible and should not be ruled out automatically. It is now an August birthstone.
Care: Use mild soapy water and avoid hard impacts. Check treatment and inclusions before using specialist cleaning equipment.
Mohs: 7–7.5
A group of boron-bearing silicate minerals with a wide range of colours. A single crystal may contain more than one colour. Trade names include rubellite for pink-to-red material and indicolite for blue material; black schorl is another familiar member. Tourmaline is an October birthstone.
Tourmaline is a group of boron-bearing silicate minerals with complex compositions. It includes many species, so an old fixed count of fourteen should not be treated as a current definition. A single crystal can contain more than one colour. Rubellite is a trade name for pink-to-red material, indicolite for blue, schorl a familiar black species, and dravite a species often seen in brown. Green, pink, blue, black, yellow and colourless material all occur.
Sources include Brazil, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania and the United States. The name derives from a Sinhalese term relating to mixed gems. Its broad colour range led to historical confusion with other stones. It is used in faceted gems, slices, carvings and beads. Heat or irradiation may be used on some material, but “usually heat treated” is too sweeping a statement for all tourmaline.
Care: Use mild soapy water and protect from heat and sharp temperature changes. Avoid ultrasonic and steam cleaning.
Mohs: 5–6
A blue-to-green hydrated copper aluminium phosphate mineral. It can be porous, and material may be stabilised, dyed, waxed or otherwise treated. Reconstructed products and imitations also exist. A turquoise colour description is not proof of the mineral. Turquoise is a December birthstone.
Turquoise is a hydrated copper aluminium phosphate, commonly opaque and blue to green. Other elements and surrounding minerals can influence its colour and matrix. Brown or dark veining may be part of the host rock. Porosity and hardness vary, and stabilisation or other treatments are common in commercial material. Dyed howlite, magnesite, composites and other imitations should be identified separately.
Sources include Iran, China, the southwestern United States, Mexico and Egypt’s Sinai region. Turquoise has been used in ancient Egyptian jewellery, Asian carvings and the ornaments and ceremonial objects of Indigenous peoples in the Americas, each with distinct traditions. Its name is linked with the French expression for Turkish stone and historic trade routes, not proof that a bead was mined in Turkey. Beads, cabochons, carvings and inlay remain familiar uses.
Care: Use a soft cloth and avoid perfume, oils, acids, solvents, soaking, steam and ultrasonic cleaners. Treatment affects the safest care method.
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Mineral photographs are appearance examples from the i-Bead Inc. gemstone glossary. Source credits for adapted reference photographs are retained below.
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Last updated: October 19, 2026
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